Title page
Copyright page
Table of Contents
Foreword
About the Authors
Acknowledgements
1 Basics, Definitions, and Application Levels
1.1 Systematics of Manufacturing Technologies
1.2 Systematics of Layer Technology
1.2.1 Application of Layer Technology: Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing
1.2.2 Characteristics of Additive Manufacturing
1.3 Hierarchical Structure of Additive Manufacturing Processes
1.3.1 Rapid Prototyping
1.3.2 Rapid Manufacturing
1.3.3 Related Nonadditive Processes: Indirect or Secondary Rapid Prototyping Processes
1.3.4 Rapid Prototyping or Rapid Manufacturing?
1.3.5 Diversity of Terms
1.3.6 How Fast Is Rapid?
1.4 Integration of Additive Manufacturing in the Product Development Process
1.4.1 Additive Manufacturing and Product Development
1.4.2 Additive Manufacturing for Low-Volume and One-of-a-Kind Production
1.4.3 Additive Manufacturing for Individualized Production
1.5 Machines for Additive Manufacturing
2 Characteristics of the Additive Manufacturing Process
2.1 Basic Principles of the Additive Manufacturing Process
2.2 Generation of Layer Information
2.2.1 Description of the Geometry by a 3D Data Record
2.2.2 Generation of Geometrical Layer Information on Single Layers
2.3 Physical Principles for Layer Generation
2.3.1 Solidification of Liquid Materials
2.3.2 Generation from the Solid Phase
2.3.3 Solidification from the Gas Phase
2.3.4 Other Processes
2.4 Elements for Generating the Physical Layer
2.4.1 Moving Elements
2.4.2 Generating and Contouring Elements
2.4.3 Layer-Generating Element
2.5 Classification of Additive Manufacturing Processes
2.6 Summary Evaluation of the Theoretical Potentials of Rapid Prototyping Processes
2.6.1 Materials
2.6.2 Model Properties
2.6.3 Details
2.6.4 Accuracy
2.6.5 Surface Quality
2.6.6 Development Potential
2.6.7 Continuous 3D Model Generation
3 Machines for Rapid Prototyping, Direct Tooling, and Direct Manufacturing
3.1 Polymerization: Stereolithography (SL)
3.1.1 Machine-Specific Basis
3.1.2 Overview: Polymerization, Stereolithography
3.1.3 Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA), 3D Systems
3.1.4 STEREOS, EOS
3.1.5 Stereolithography, Fockele & Schwarze
3.1.6 Microstereolithography, microTEC
3.1.7 Solid Ground Curing, Cubital
3.1.8 Digital Light Processing, Envisiontec
3.1.9 Polymer Printing, Stratasys/Objet
3.1.10 Multijet Modeling (MJM), ProJet, 3D Systems
3.1.11 Digital Wax
3.1.12 Film Transfer Imaging, 3D Systems
3.1.13 Other Polymerization Processes
3.2 Sintering/Selective Sintering: Melting in the Powder Bed
3.2.1 Machine-Specific Basic Principles
3.2.2 Overview: Sintering and Melting
3.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering, 3D Systems/DTM
3.2.4 Laser Sintering, EOS
3.2.5 Laser Melting, Realizer GmbH
3.2.6 Laser Sintering, SLM Solutions
3.2.7 Laser Melting, Renishaw Ltd.
3.2.8 Laser Cusing, Concept Laser
3.2.9 Direct Laser Forming, TRUMPF
3.2.10 Electron Beam Melting
3.2.11 Selective Mask Sintering (SMS), Sintermask
3.2.12 Laser Sintering, Phenix
3.3 Coating: Melting with the Powder Nozzle
3.3.1 Process Principle
3.3.2 Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS), Optomec
3.3.3 Direct Metal Deposition (DMD), DM3D Technology (TRUMPF)
3.4 Layer Laminate Manufacturing (LLM)
3.4.1 Overview of Layer Laminate Manufacturing
3.4.2 Machine-Specific Basics
3.4.3 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), Cubic Technologies
3.4.4 Rapid Prototyping Systems (RPS), Kinergy
3.4.5 Selective Adhesive and Hot Press Process (SAHP), Kira
3.4.6 Layer Milling Process (LMP), Zimmermann
3.4.7 Stratoconception, rp2i
3.4.8 Paper 3D Printing, MCor
3.4.9 Plastic Sheet Lamination, Solido
3.4.10 Other Layer Laminate Methods
3.5 Extrusion: Fused Layer Modeling (FLM)
3.5.1 Overview of Extrusion Processes
3.5.2 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stratasys
3.5.3 Wax Printers, Solidscape
3.5.4 Multijet Modeling (MJM), ThermoJet, 3D Systems
3.6 Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
3.6.1 Overview: 3D Printing
3.6.2 3D Printer, 3D Systems, and Z Corporation
3.6.3 Metal and Molding Sand Printer, ExOne
3.6.4 Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC), Soligen
3.6.5 3D Printing System, Voxeljet
3.6.6 Maskless Mesoscale Material Deposition (M3D), Optomec
3.7 Hybrid Processes
3.7.1 Controlled Metal Buildup (CMB)
3.7.2 Laminating and Ultrasonic Welding: Ultrasonic Consolidation, Solidica
3.8 Summary Evaluation of Rapid Prototyping Processes
3.8.1 Characteristic Properties of AM Processes Compared to Conventional Processes
3.8.2 Accuracy
3.8.3 Surfaces
3.8.4 Benchmark Tests and User Parts
3.9 Planning Targets
3.10 Follow-up Processes
3.10.1 Target Material: Plastics
3.10.2 Target Material: Metal
4 Rapid Prototyping
4.1 Classification and Definition
4.1.1 Properties of Prototypes
4.1.2 Characteristics of Rapid Prototyping
4.2 Strategic Aspects for the Use of Prototypes
4.2.1 Product Development Steps
4.2.2 Time to Market
4.2.3 Front Loading
4.2.4 Digital Product Model
4.2.5 The Limits of Physical Modeling
4.2.6 Communication and Motivation
4.3 Operational Aspects in the Use of Prototypes
4.3.1 Rapid Prototyping as a Tool for Fast Product Development
4.3.2 Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Industrial Product Development
4.3.3 Rapid Prototyping Models for the Visualization of 3D Data
4.3.4 Rapid Prototyping in Medicine
4.3.5 Rapid Prototyping in Art, Archaeology, and Architecture
4.3.6 Rapid Prototyping for the Evaluation of Calculation Methods
4.4 Outlook
5 Rapid Tooling
5.1 Classification and Definition of Terms
5.1.1 Direct and Indirect Methods
5.2 Properties of Additive Manufactured Tools
5.2.1 Strategic Aspects for the Use of Additive Manufactured Tools
5.2.2 Design Properties of Additive Manufactured Tools
5.3 Indirect Rapid Tooling Processes: Molding Processes and Follow-up Processes
5.3.1 Suitability of AM Processes for the Manufacture of Master Patterns for Subsequent Processes
5.3.2 Indirect Methods for the Manufacture of Tools for Plastic Components
5.3.3 Indirect Methods for the Manufacture of Metal Components
5.4 Direct Rapid Tooling Processes
5.4.1 Prototype Tooling: Tools Based on Plastic Rapid Prototyping Models and Methods
5.4.2 Metal Tools Based on Multilevel AM Processes
5.4.3 Direct Tooling: Tools Based on Metal Rapid Prototype Processes
5.5 Future Prospects
6 Direct Manufacturing: Rapid Manufacturing
6.1 Classification and Definition of Terms
6.1.1 Terms
6.1.2 From Rapid Prototyping to Rapid Manufacturing
6.1.3 Workflow for Direct Manufacturing
6.1.4 Requirements for Direct Manufacturing
6.2 Potential for Additive Manufacturing of End Products
6.2.1 Increased Design Freedom
6.2.2 Production of Traditionally Not Producible Products
6.2.3 Variation of Mass Products
6.2.4 Personalization of Mass Products
6.2.5 Realization of New Materials
6.2.6 Realization of New Manufacturing Strategies
6.2.7 Design of New Labor and Living Alternatives
6.3 Requirements on Additive Manufacturing for Production
6.3.1 Requirements on Additive Manufacturing of a Part
6.3.2 Requirements for Additive Mass Production with Current Methods
6.3.3 Future Efforts in Additive Series Production
6.4 Implementation of Rapid Manufacturing
6.4.1 Additive Manufacturing Machines as Elements of a Process Chain
6.4.2 Additive Machines for Complete Production of Products
6.5 Application Fields
6.5.1 Application Fields for Materials
6.5.2 Application Fields by Industry
6.6 Summary
7 Safety and Environmental Protection
7.1 Labor Agreements for the Operation and Production of Additive Manufacturing Machines and the Handling of the Corresponding Material
7.2 Annotations to Materials for Additive Manufacturing
7.3 Annotations for Using Additive Manufactured Components
8 Economic Aspects
8.1 Strategic Aspects
8.1.1 Strategic Aspects of the Use of AM Methods in Product Development
8.2 Operative Aspects
8.2.1 Establishing the Optimal Additive Manufacturing Process
8.2.2 Establishing the Costs of Additive Manufacturing Processes
8.2.3 Characteristics of Additive Manufacturing and Its Impacts on Economy
8.3 Make or Buy?
9 Future Rapid Prototyping Processes
9.1 Microcomponents
9.1.1 Microcomponents Made of Metal and Ceramic
9.1.2 Microcomponents Made of Metal and Ceramics by Laser Melting
9.2 Contour Crafting
9.3 D-Shape Process
9.4 Selective Inhibition of Sintering (SIS)
9.4.1 The SIS-Polymer Process
9.4.2 The SIS-Metal Process
9.5 Free Molding
9.6 Freeformer
10 Appendix
Glossary
11 Bibliography
Andreas Gebhardt
Jan-Steffen Hötter
Additive Manufacturing
3D Printing for Prototyping and Manufacturing
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| Foreword |
Since the late 1980s, in fact, for more than 25 years, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has been penetrating the world of manufacturing. When the layer-based technology emerged, it was called Rapid Prototyping (RP). This was the best name for a technology that could not fabricate anything but sticky and brittle parts, which could only be used as prototypes. The process was not even “rapid,” although it allowed the making of time- and money-consuming tools to be avoided. With the creation of the first prototype by RP, a significant amount of time and money could be saved.
The initial process was called stereolithography and it was based on photo-polymerization, which first processed acrylates and then epoxies later on. In the following years, new layer-based processes were developed and an extended range of materials became qualified for AM applications, and all of them were plastics.
Around the turn of the millennium, processes for making metal parts were introduced to the market. With this development, the focus of manufacturers as well as of the users changed from just prototyping to manufacturing because of improved processes, materials, software, and control. The challenge was then to make final parts.
Today all classes of engineering materials, such as plastics, metals, ceramics, and even nontraditional materials, such as food, drugs, human tissue, and bones, can be processed using 3D printers.
There is still a long way to go, but due to vibrant activities concerning all aspects of 3D printing worldwide, this high-speed development is incomparable to the expansion of any fabrication technology in the past.
There are two main reasons for intense interesting in this technology for somebody active in the field of product development and production:
First, to stay competitive, one should be able to judge the capabilities of existing, new, and emerging AM processes in comparison to traditional manufacturing processes and process chains. The task is not just a matter of speeding up the process but to improve the way we do engineering design towards “designing for AM.” This makes completely new products possible and shifts the competition of traditional manufacturing towards a new level of lightweight design, as well as resource-saving and environmentally friendly mass production of individual parts.
Second, people begin to understand that AM is not just capable of revolutionizing our way of designing and producing parts, but able to affect many aspects of our daily lives.
AM touches upon legal aspects, such as product reliability and intellectual property rights, as compared to the digital entertainment market. AM also brings even more challenges as parts can cause significant problems like physical injuries or even death, which music and videos do not do.
Digital data, including not only technical data such as a blue print, but the exact information for creating the product, can easily be sent all over the world and encounter every imaginable hurdle, such as frontiers, embargos, custom fees, export regulations, and many more. This requires us to rethink the well-functioning world of today.
Many of the questions raised, if not the majority, need to be decided by people who are not technicians. The better that those involved understand the technical part and the more thorough their information, the better decisions they will be qualified to make.
Consequently, this book was written to support the product developers and people who are responsible for the production, as well as others who are involved in the process of realizing the enormous challenges of this technology.
| Aachen in March 2016 |
Andreas Gebhardt |
| About the Authors |
Andreas Gebhardt, born in 1953, studied mechanical engineering at the Technical University Aachen, Germany (RWTH), where he received his Engineering Diploma (Dipl-Ing). In 1986 he passed his doctoral exam (Dr-Ing) at the same university with a thesis on the “Simulation of the transient behavior of conventional power plants.”
In 1986, Mr. Gebhardt was appointed general manager of a company that specialized in engine refurbishment. In 1991, he moved to general manager at the LBBZ GmbH, a service bureau on laser material processing, where in 1992, he started working on rapid prototyping. When in 1997, the CP Center of Prototyping GmbH, an Additive Manufacturing Service Bureau was founded, he transferred there as a general manager.
With the beginning of the spring term in 2002, Mr. Gebhardt was appointed Professor for Advanced Fabrication Technology and Rapid Prototyping at the Aachen University of Applied Sciences (FH Aachen) where he established an AM Team and Lab called the GoetheLab for Additive Manufacturing. Since 2002, Mr. Gebhardt has also been a guest professor at the City College of the City University of New York (CCNY).
In 2012, Mr. Gebhardt was elected Dean of the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics, FH Aachen. In November 2014, he was appointed extraordinary Professor at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT), Pretoria, RSA.
Mr. Gebhardt is Chairman of the AM Research Committee (FA13) of the German Welding Association (DVS) and he heads the team of the “Aachen Center of 3D Printing,” a joint research group of FH Aachen and Fraunhofer ILT AM specialists.
Since 2004 Mr. Gebhardt has been the editor of the peer-reviewed, open access online journal on AM called the RTeJournal.
Jan-Steffen Hötter, born in 1987, received his Bachelor’s Degree (B.Eng.) and Master’s Degree in Mechanical Engineering (M.Eng.) from the Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Aachen, Germany. He established the Metal Laser Sintering Lab and Team under the umbrella of the GoetheLab, which he now is heading. He is engaged in the Aachen Center of 3D Printing and coordinates the AM work of the Institute for Tool-less Production (IWF GmbH). Mr. Hötter is a member of the VDI Committee “Additive Manufacturing,” and gives guest lectures at several German universities.
| Acknowledgements |
The interdisciplinary character and the enormous developmental speed of AM in general, and of the layer-based fabrication processes and machines in particular, make it almost impossible for an individual to display this discipline correctly, completely, and entirely up-to-date.
We are therefore very thankful for the enormous assistance from many people.
The practical orientation of this book mainly is backed up by the contribution of the management and the staff of the AM Service-Bureau CP-GmbH, mainly from Besima Sümer, Christoph Schwarz, and Michael Wolf.
Major help came from the GoetheLab team of the Aachen University of Applied Sciences.
First of all, a special thanks goes to the whole metal group of the Goethelab team that supported the entire process in every chapter. We want to thank Philipp Ginkel, Prasanna Rajaratnam, Simon Scheuer, Patrycja Wiezik, Alina Richter, and Niklas Kessler. A special thanks goes to Alexander Schwarz, who focused on the correct formatting of this book and supported the authors in organizational questions.
Additionally, we thank our colleagues
Miranda Fateri, who personally worked on some chapters and contributed together with her Glass- and Ceramic Team,
Laura Thurn and her Plastic and Fabber Team, and
Julia Kessler, who brought in not only professional knowledge concerning her medical research but her management skills to shape the teamwork.
As this book is based on four editions in German, our appreciation goes to all who, since the late 1990s, have helped to make and optimize the topic and who are listed in the preceding German editions.
Thanks to all members of the professional committees of the VDI, Association of German Engineers and DVS, German Welding Association (FA 13), which we are members of.
We thank countless colleagues (who must stay nameless in this content) whom we met on conferences, exhibitions, and meetings for countless discussions and suggestions. In case we forgot anyone, we sincerely apologize.
Thanks to the Hanser team and to Mrs. Monika Stüve for her support over the years.
Andreas Gebhardt
Jan-Steffen Hötter
| 1 | Basics, Definitions, and Application Levels |