Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: Origin, Production and Utilization of Pseudocereals

1.1 Quinoa – Chenopodium quinoa Willd (Amaranthaceae)
1.2 Amaranth – Amaranthus hypochondriacus L., Amaranthus cruentus L., and Amaranthus caudatus L. (Amaranthaceae)
1.3 Buckwheat – Fagopyrum esculentum Moench
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of Kernels

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Gross Structural Features
2.3 Physical Properties
2.4 Kernel Structures
2.5 Chemical Composition of Kernels
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 3: Carbohydrates of Kernels

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Simple Carbohydrates and Oligosaccharides in Quinoa, Kañiwa, Amaranth and Buckwheat
3.3 Complex Carbohydrates / Starch / Nonstarch Polysaccharides
3.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 4: Dietary Fibre and Bioactive Compounds of Kernels

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Dietary Fibre
4.3 Bioactive Compounds
4.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 5: Proteins and Amino Acids of Kernels

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Amaranth
5.3 Quinoa
5.4 Buckwheat
5.5 Conclusion
References

Chapter 6: Lipids of Kernels

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Oil Content
6.3 Fatty Acid Composition
6.4 Lipid Class Composition
6.5 Distribution of Lipids in the Kernels
6.6 Other Relevant Compounds in Pseudocereal Oils
6.7 Conclusions
References

Chapter 7: Pseudocereal Dry and Wet Milling: Processes, Products and Applications

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Separation of Kernel Components
7.3 Industrial Applications and General Food Uses
7.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 8: Food Uses of Whole Pseudocereals

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Bakery Products
8.3 Snacks and Breakfast Cereals
8.4 Beverages / Drinks
8.5 The Most Popular Traditional Foods
8.6 Pasta Products
8.7 Infant Food
8.8 Others
8.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 9: Pseudocereals in Gluten-Free Products

9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Gluten-Free Diet and General Aspects of Gluten-Free Processing
9.3 Potential of Pseudocereals for Gluten-Free Processing
9.4 Gluten-Free Bread Baking with Pseudocereals
9.5 Use of Pseudocereals in Pasta
9.6 Other Products
9.7 Market Today
9.8 Conclusion
References

Chapter 10: Nutritional and Health Implications of Pseudocereal Intake

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Pseudocereals in Allergy and Coeliac Disease
10.3 Prebiotic Effect of Pseudocereals
10.4 Potential of Pseudocereals in Type-2 Diabetes: Glycaemic Index (GI)
10.5 Micronutrient Availability
10.6 Hypocholesterolemic Properties
10.7 Antioxidant Activity of Pseudocereals
10.8 Potential of Pseudocereals against Cancer
10.9 Conclusions
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Origin, Production and Utilization of Pseudocereals

Figure 1.1 Development of quinoa plant: (a) taproot branched; (b) stem branched; (c) stem unbranched; (d) simple leaves; (e) small flowers; (f) panicle in training; (g) panicle amaranthiform; (h) compact panicle ; (i) mature panicle; (j) quinoa seeds; (k) seed.
Figure 1.2 Quinoa cultivation, harvest and diseases: (a) quinoa in the South American Andes; (b) manual tools; (c) vegetable seeders; (d) fine grain seeders; (e) grain maturation; (f) harvest; (g) mildew; (h) abrupt leaf fall. (See color plate section for the color representation of this figure.)
Figure 1.3 (a) Cultivation of amaranth; (b) inflorescence of amaranth; (c) amaranthus seeds.
Figure 1.4 Buckwheat: (a) simple leaves; (b) hermaphrodite flower; (c) inflorescence; (d) fruit achene; (e) emergence; (f) first leaves; (g) branches begin; (h) corymbose; (i) levelling; (j) soil preparation; (k) crop uniformity; (l) forms the fruits; (m) seed is mature; (n) harvest; (o) clean fruit.

Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of Kernels

Figure 2.1 Longitudinal sections of seed structures of the three major groups of pseudocereals: (a) amaranth, (b) quinoa, and (c) buckwheat; e, embryo. Adapted from Prego et al. (1998) and Valcárcel-Yamani et al. (2012).
Figure 2.2 (a) Amaranth; (b) quinoa; (c) buckwheat; (d) wheat.
Figure 2.3 Quinoa seeds are diverse in size (1–2.6 mm), colour (green, white, off-white, opaque white, yellow, bright yellow, orange, pink, red vermilion, cherry, coffee, gray and others), composition and shape (conical, cylindrical or ellipsoidal). (a) PI 510535; (b) PI 614987; (c) PI 614916; (d) PI 614886; (e) PI 614880; (f) PI 510549; (g) PI 510544; (h) PI 510536; (i) PI 510533; (j) PI 478415; (k) PI 470932; (l) PI 433232; accessions were obtained from the US National Plant Germplasm System (ARS-USDA, United States).

Chapter 3: Carbohydrates of Kernels

Figure 3.1 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) Rosada of Huancayo quinoa starch.
Figure 3.2 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) Blanca of Hualhuas quinoa starch.
Figure 3.3 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) Pasankalla quinoa starch.

Chapter 5: Proteins and Amino Acids of Kernels

Figure 5.1 Protein content of various cereals and pseudocereals.
Figure 5.2 Chromatograms of quinoa protein fractions based on solubility, (a) water, (b) 2% sodiumchloride and (c) 1% SDS. Polypeptides were separated on Jupiter (Phenomenex, Germany) using a water/acetonitrile gradient containing 0.05% TFA and detected at 214 nm.

Chapter 6: Lipids of Kernels

Figure 6.1 (a) Lipids in the cytoplasm surrounded the proteins (magnification × 700). (b) Higher magnification (×1700) of (a). Proteins bodies (Pb), lipids (arrows), N (nucleus). Reproduced with permission from Coimbra and Salema (1994).
Figure 6.2 Lipid body (L) in buckwheat embryo cell cytoplasm. Reproducedwith permission from Guan and Adachi (1994).
Figure 6.3 Section of an embryo cell showing lipid body (L), endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Reproduced with permission from Prego et al. (1998).

Chapter 7: Pseudocereal Dry and Wet Milling: Processes, Products and Applications

Figure 7.1 Quinoa grains, whole flour and crumb bread with 25% quinoa flour: (a) white quinoa; (b) red quinoa; (c) black quinoa.
Figure 7.2 Preparation of quinoa kernel fractions by Chauhan et al. (1992).
Figure 7.3 Diagram of tangential flow filtration.
Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of quinoa wet milling process by Scanlin et al. (2010).
Figure 7.5 Fractions obtained by quinoa wet milling: (a) red quinoa; (b) fraction rich in Hull; (c) fraction rich in Germen and fibre; (d) fraction rich in protein; (e) fraction rich in starch (Gonzalez-Roberto et al., 2015).
Figure 7.6 Schematic diagram of the process for preparing the quinoa seeds by Pouvreau et al. (2014).
Figure 7.7 Schematic diagram of buckwheat wet milling process by Wronkowska and Haros (2014).
Figure 7.8 Fractions obtained by wet milling: (a) Buckwheat grain with hull; (b) hull; (c) fraction rich in germen and fibre; (d) fraction rich in protein; (e) fraction of starch; and (f) starch after purification.
Figure 7.9 Fractions obtained by wet milling: (a) buckwheat without hull; (b) fraction rich in germen and fibre; (c) fraction rich in protein; (d) fraction of starch; and (e) starch after purification.

Chapter 8: Food Uses of Whole Pseudocereals

Figure 8.1 Commercial quinoa products (Spain): (a) quinoa seeds; (b) rice cakes with quinoa; (c) gelatinized quinoa powder for instant solubility; (d) rice and quinoa beverage; (e) gluten-free organic quinoa biscuits with cinnamon.
Figure 8.2 (a) Three types of commercial buckwheat groats, raw and after hydrothermal processes used to prepare kasha; (b) three types of commercial buckwheat flours, raw and after hydrothermal processes used to prepare bread and pasta (Poland).
Figure 8.3 Effect of replacing wheat flour by whole amaranth flour (A. cruentus) on bread crumb structure: (a) 0%, (b) 10%, (c) 20%, (d) 30%, and (e) 40%.
Figure 8.4 Effect of the inclusion of whole amaranth flour on loaf shape, central slice, and crumb structure. Bread formulations: (a) white bread; (b and c) Bread with 25 g and 50 g of A. hypochondriacus flour/100 g, respectively; (d and e) bread with 25 g and 50 g of A. spinosus flour/100 g.
Figure 8.5 Effect of the inclusion of quinoa on loaf shape, central slice, and crumb structure. Bread formulations: (a) white bread; (b) whole wheat bread; (c) bread with 25 g of whole quinoa flour/100 g; (d) bread with 50 g of whole quinoa flour/100 g.
Figure 8.6 Effect of the inclusion of quinoa on crumb structure and color. Bread formulations: (a) white bread; (b) bread with 25 g of white quinoa flour/100 g; (c) bread with 25 g of red quinoa flour/100 g; (d) bread with 25 g of black quinoa flour/100 g.
Figure 8.7 (a) Sourdough wholemeal bread supplemented with roasted buckwheat flour (13%) formulated with wheat and rye flour; (b) roll with milled hull from raw buckwheat (3%).
Figure 8.8 Commercial amaranth honey poppies (Mexico).
Figure 8.9 Commercial amaranth bars (Mexico).
Figure 8.10 Commercial buckwheat noodles (Spain).

Chapter 9: Pseudocereals in Gluten-Free Products

Figure 9.1 Raw materials used for gluten-free products on the market (Product Launch Analytics, Datamonitor ©).
Figure 9.2 Gluten-free amaranth bread containing varied amounts of egg white, fat and water.
Figure 9.3 Determination of elasticity in gluten-free pasta.
Figure 9.4 Launches of new gluten-free products (worldwide) (Product Launch Analytics, Datamonitor ©).
Figure 9.5 Launches of new gluten-free products containing amaranth, quinoa or buckwheat (worldwide) (Product Launch Analytics, Datamonitor ©).

Chapter 10: Nutritional and Health Implications of Pseudocereal Intake

Figure 10.1 Functional interrrelationships within the gut–liver axis that can be modulated by biologically active compounds from pseudocereals.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Origin, Production and Utilization of Pseudocereals

Table 1.1 World production of quinoa.

Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of Kernels

Table 2.1 Botanical classification of cereals and pseudocereals.
Table 2.2 Physical properties and geometrical dimensions of wheat and pseudocereal seeds.
Table 2.3 Chemical composition of wheat and pseudocereals.
Table 2.4 Mineral composition an phytic acid concentration in wheat and pseudocereal kernels.
Table 2.5 Vitamin concentration of wheat and pseudocereal kernels
Table 2.6 Content of saponins in quinoa seeds (g/100g dry basis).

Chapter 3: Carbohydrates of Kernels

Table 3.1 Chemical composition of quinoa and kañiwa grains.
Table 3.2 Starch content in Andean grains and common cereals (percentage dry basis).
Table 3.3 Amylose and amylopectin content of Andean grains and common cereals (percentage dry basis).
Table 3.4 Thermal characteristics of starches of quinoa.
Table 3.5 Starch granule size in Andean grains and common cereals (µm).
Table 3.6 Chemical composition of amaranth species.
Table 3.7 Thermal properties of starches in kernels.

Chapter 4: Dietary Fibre and Bioactive Compounds of Kernels

Table 4.1 Dietary fibre content in Andean grains and cereals (g/100 g).
Table 4.2 Total contents (mg/100 g) phenolic acids in quinoa, kaniwa and kiwicha grains.
Table 4.3 Contents of flavonoids in quinoa and kaniwa grains (mg/100 g).

Chapter 5: Proteins and Amino Acids of Kernels

Table 5.1 Amino acid composition of amaranth (average of several varieties) (Montoya-Rodriguéz et al., 2015).
Table 5.2 Distribution of protein fractions (in %) according to Osbourne.
Table 5.3 Overview of amino acid composition in quinoa (g/100 g protein).
Table 5.4 Protein content of buckwheat grains in different studies.
Table 5.5 Amino acid composition of buckwheat (Christa and Soral-Šmietana, 2008) compared to wheat (FAO) and the WHO recommendation of essential amino acid daily intake for adults.
Table 5.6 Main buckwheat allergens (Heffler et al., 2014).

Chapter 6: Lipids of Kernels

Table 6.1 Oil content of quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat grains and other plants.
Table 6.2 Oil content of different amaranth species.
Table 6.3 Oil content of different buckwheat species.
Table 6.4 Oil content of different quinoa grain genotypes in Chile.
Table 6.5 Fatty acid composition of amaranth, buckwheat quinoa and others (g/100 g fat).
Table 6.6 Lipid classes of amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa.
Table 6.7 Tocopherols, vitamin E and squalene content (mg/kg) in amaranth, buckwheat, quinoa, and wheat.

Chapter 9: Pseudocereals in Gluten-Free Products

Table 9.1 Gluten-free raw materials.

Pseudocereals

Chemistry and Technology

Edited by

Claudia Monika Haros

Cereal Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish
Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Valencia, Spain

Regine Schoenlechner

Institute of Food Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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List of Contributors

Jenny Valdez Arana
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina
Facultad de Industrias Alimentarias
Lima
Perú

Stefano D'Amico
Institute of Food Technology
Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna
Austria

Amanda Di Fabio
School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry
Universidad Maza
Guaymallén
Mendoza
Argentina

Juan Antonio Giménez-Bastida
Department of Chemistry and Biodynamics of Food
Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Tuwina
Poland

Swaantje Hamdi
Institute of Translational Immunology
University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz
Germany

Claudia Monika Haros
Cereal Group
Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC)
Valencia
Spain

Bernadett Langó
Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Sciences
BUTE
Budapest
Hungary

José Moisés Laparra Llopis
Institute of Translational Immunology
University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz
Germany

Pedro Maldonado-Alvarado
Departamento de Ciencia de Alimentos y Biotecnología
Facultad de Ingeniería Química y Agroindustria
Escuela Politécnica Nacional
Quito Ecuador

Gloria Parraga
Agricultural Matters Division
Agricultural Department
Salta
Capital City
Argentina

María Reguera
Departamento de Biología
Facultad de Ciencias
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Campus de Cantoblanco
Madrid
Spain

Ritva Repo-Carrasco-Valencia
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina
Facultad de Industrias Alimentarias
Lima
Perú

Juan Mario Sanz-Penella
Cereal Group
Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA) Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC)
Paterna
Valencia - Spain

Regine Schoenlechner
Institute of Food Technology
Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna
Austria

Cristina Sotomayor-Grijalva
Departamento de Ciencia de Alimentos y Biotecnología
Facultad de Ingeniería Química y Agroindustria
Escuela Politécnica Nacional
Quito Ecuador

Sandor Tömösköszi
Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Sciences
BUTE
Budapest
Hungary

Silvia Valencia-Chamorro
Departamento de Ciencia de Alimentos y Biotecnología
Facultad de Ingeniería Química y Agroindustria
Escuela Politécnica Nacional
Quito Ecuador

Małgorzata Wronkowska
Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Department of Chemistry and Biodynamics of Food
Tuwima
Olsztyn
Poland

Preface

Pseudocereals are a group of nongrasses, the seeds of which can be ground into flour and then used like cereals. The main pseudocereals are amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tartaricum).

Compared to the true cereals, pseudocereals are still underutilized and cultivation is low but, in recent years, worldwide demand for them has increased immensely, resulting in an increase in their production but also an increase in their price. For many years pseudocereals have been widely recognized for their nutritional value by food scientists and food producers. They contain high-quality proteins, abundant amounts of starch with unique characteristics, large quantities of micronutrients like minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds and they are gluten free, which makes them suitable for people suffering from various gluten intolerances. For these reasons, interest in pseudocereals has increased immensely since the turn of the century and research efforts have been intensified.

This book summarizes the large amount of recent research on pseudocereals and provides comprehensive and up-to-date knowledge within all the relevant fields of food science. It provides information on the origin of pseudocereals, their botanical characteristics, production and utilization, structure and chemical composition, paying special attention to carbohydrates, fibres, bioactive compounds, proteins and lipids of kernels. It includes dry and wet milling, various food products and applications, as well as gluten-free products. The nutritional and health implications of pseudocereals are also addressed.

We hope that this book will contribute to an increased use of pseudocereals in human nutrition by consumers worldwide.

Claudia Monika Haros Regine Schoenlechner